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Special Class Attributes

We can address both issues with Python’s introspection tools—special attributes and functions that give us access to some of the internals of objects’ implementations. These tools are somewhat advanced and generally used more by people writing tools for other programmers to use than by programmers developing applications. Even so, a basic knowledge of some of these tools is useful because they allow us to write code that processes classes in generic ways. In our code, for example, there are two hooks that can help us out, both of which were introduced near the end of the preceding chapter:

 

The built-in instance.__class__ attribute provides a link from an instance to the class from which it was created. Classes in turn have a __name__, just like modules, and a __bases__ sequence that provides access to superclasses. We can use these here to print the name of the class from which an instance is made rather than one we’ve hardcoded.The built-in object.__dict__ attribute provides a dictionary with one key/value pair for every attribute attached to a namespace object (including modules, classes, and instances). Because it is a dictionary, we can fetch its keys list, index by key, iterate over its keys, and so on, to process all attributes generically. We can use this here to print every attribute in any instance, not just those we hardcode in custom displays.

Here’s what these tools look like in action at Python’s interactive prompt. Notice how we load Person at the interactive prompt with a from statement here—class names live in and are imported from modules, exactly like function names and other variables:

>>> from person import Person
>>> bob = Person('Bob Smith')
>>> print(bob)                                 # Show bob's __str__
[Person: Bob Smith, 0]

>>> bob.__class__                              # Show bob's class and its name
<class 'person.Person'>
>>> bob.__class__.__name__
'Person'

>>> list(bob.__dict__.keys())                  # Attributes are really dict keys
['pay', 'job', 'name']                         # Use list to force list in 3.0

>>> for key in bob.__dict__:
        print(key, '=>', bob.__dict__[key])    # Index manually

pay => 0
job => None
name => Bob Smith

>>> for key in bob.__dict__:
        print(key, '=>', getattr(bob, key))    # obj.attr, but attr is a var

pay => 0
job => None
name => Bob Smith

As noted briefly in the prior chapter, some attributes accessible from an instance might not be stored in the __dict__ dictionary if the instance’s class defines __slots__, an optional and relatively obscure feature of new-style classes (and all classes in Python 3.0) that stores attributes in an array and that we’ll discuss in Chapters 30 and 31. Since slots really belong to classes instead of instances, and since they are very rarely used in any event, we can safely ignore them here and focus on the normal __dict__.