第19页 | How China Became Capitalist-Ronald Coase

do not give up a good deed because it is trivial; do not commit a misconduct because it is trivial (bu yi shan xiao er bu wei; bu yi e xiao er wei zi), 187

dual structure of reform, 163, 164, 166, 167

see also two reforms in China’s market transformation; marginal revolutions

dual substitution, see under enterprise reform

dual track pricing, 88, 124–5, 167, 170

corruption created by, 94

exposing state enterprises to market, 124

in agriculture, 87

in oil industry, 168

growth of non-state sectors facilitated by, 108, 125

price distortion resulted from, 126, 168

duplicative investment, 144–5, 169, 173

as condition for regional competition, 173–4

as mechanism of social learning, 145–6

see also economies of localization; regional competition; social learning

economic crime, 75, 77–8, 79

economic man, 206

economies of localization, 143–4, 146

see also duplicative investment; industrial parks; regional competition

economies of scale, 45, 52, 146, 173–4

internal and external economies, 146, 174

efficiency, 18

static versus dynamic, 169

emancipation of the mind, 96, 98, 199

emigration, 60

entrepreneurship, 65, 140, 159–60, 163, 175, 178, 181, 200, 201

enterprise reform

delegating rights and sharing profits, 126, 129, 158, 170

dual substitution in Changsha, 134–5

experiment in Sichuan, 43–4

holding on to the big and letting go the small, 133

horizontal economic integration, 89–90

managerial responsibility system, 126, 167, 168

privatization in Zhucheng, 131–2

export promotion, 36 Compare import substitution

see also trade promotion

external economies, see under economies of scale

factor market, 71, 138, 142, 169, 173

as condition for firms’ competition, 138–9

family farming, see private farming; household responsibility system

fatal conceit, 80, 155, 225

China’s accidental avoidance of, 155

see also under Hayek, F.A.

feedback mechanism, 169, 170

fengjian, 21, 213

Ferguson, Adam, 154

First Emperor of Qin, 182, 195

see also Qin Dynasty (221–207 B.C.)

Five Year Plan, 5, 30, 73, 177, 210, 214

Fogel, Robert, 180, 202

foreign capital, 84–5, 110, 149–51, 157, 194

change in policy on, 30–1

see also foreign direct investment

foreign direct investment, 33, 35, 63, 149, 179

benefits of, 149–51

see also foreign capital

Fortune Global 500, 181–2

four modernizations, 33, 34, 38

as intended goal of reform, 23, 66, 205

Deng’s embracement of, 28

Hua’s launch of, 26–7, 29, 41, 157

Zhou Enlai’s proposal of, 27, 39

see also socialist modernization

Franklin, Benjamin, 164

free enterprise economy, 169

freedom of expression, 94

see also freedom of speech; market for ideas

freedom of speech, 198

see also freedom of expression; market for ideas

Friedman, Milton, 32, 192

Fujian province, 24, 63

Gang of Four, 22, 23, 24, 41, 98

Gehrig, Willner, 85

General Motors (GM), 145, 150, 151, 189

globalization, 109, 201

glorious project (guancai shiye), 123

Great Leap Forward, 6, 7, 14–18, 20, 49, 54, 212

administrative decentralization as a cause of, 17

backyard furnace and labor misallocation during, 16

ban on migration as cause of famine during, 16–17

Chen Yun’s critique of, 74, 80

commune canteen as cause of famine during, 14–15, 148

disagreement between Mao and Liu on, 17, 212

fabrication of agricultural production during, 15

giving rise to private farming, 49–50

introducing rural industrialization, 54

media control as cause of, 15–16, 17

Great Exhibition (1851), 189

grid structure of supervision, see under state owned enterprises

Gu, Mu, 31, 32, 33, 61

Gu, Zhun, 43, 117

guanxi, 170

Guangdong province, 24, 35, 59–62, 63, 84, 101, 116–18, 119, 160

see also Shenzhen; Special Economic Zones; Southern Tour

Guizhou province, 47, 49, 216

Han Dynasty (206 B.C. to 220 A.D.), 122, 196

Hayek, F.A.

on allocation as a discovery process, 137

on democracy, 229

on fatal conceit, 155, 225

on problem of knowledge, 18, 225

on social facts, 184

on unintended consequences, x, 225

household registration system, see hukou

household responsibility system, 46, 50, 51, 53, 68, 76, 87, 136, 158

see also decollectivization; marginal revolutions; private farming

Hong Kong, 60, 61, 181, 182, 195, 202, 204

as China’s window to capitalism, 32, 35, 59, 62, 84, 149, 150

as destiny of illegal Chinese emigrants, 59–60, 159, 160

Hong Kong Stock Exchange, 135

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 192

Hu, Feng, 3, 10

Hu, Jintao, 176

Hu, Jiwei, 24

Hu, Yaobang, 123, 155

in debate on practice, 24, 25, 66

rehabilitation campaign, 24

resignation, 93–4

Hua, Guofeng, 22–7, 40, 80, 157

hukou, 7, 181

human capital, 145, 146, 181, 194, 203

human nature, 187, 206

identity, 97–8, 154

idiosyncratic constraints, 72, 126, 167, 170

compare soft budget constraint

“Imperial Sword”, 101

import substitution, 36 compare export promotion

incremental reform, 161

incentives, 76, 136, 137, 170, 192

individual economy (geti jingji), 58, 65

see also private economy

Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, 91, 189

industrial parks, 139–40

as instrument of regional competition, 143, 146

its administrative structure, 141

role of local governments, 142

see also economies of localization; economies of scale; regional competition

inflation, 45, 92, 104, 108

information cost, see under transaction cost

Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), ix, x

institutional change, 50–1, 163–4, 213

bottom-up versus top-down approach in, 52

piecemeal versus big bang approach in, 154–5

role of interests versus ideas in, 97

institutional diversity, see under diversity

institutional facts, see social facts

institutions, 130, 183–4, 203

as instruments versus identity, 97–8

internal economies, see under economies of scale

intellectuals (shi), 9–10, 19, 25, 197–8

investment hunger, 91

IPO (initial public offering), 135

iron bowl, 89, 123, 134, 135, 175

Japan, 3, 4, 19, 100, 150, 189, 191, 199, 202

Chinese officials’ visit to, 32, 33, 34, 35, 43, 62, 63, 72

Japan Economic Journal, 83

Liberal Democratic Party, 2

Jiang, Qing, 22, 28

see also Gang of Four

Jiang, Zemin, 175–6

joint-stock company, 90

justice, 184–6, 215–16

junxian, 21, 147, 213 compare fengjian

Kang, Youwei, 177

impact on Mao Zedong, 227

Datong and Xiaokang, 177

Kashi, 64

Khrushchev, 11, 16

Knight, Frank, 187–8

Kohl, Helmut, 161

Kornai, Janos, 108

Korean War, 14, 27

Kuomintang, 3, 5, 195, 209, 218

see also Chiang, Kai-shek; Sun, Yat-sen

labor market, 89–90, 133, 134, 181

labor mobility, 31, 55, 181

labor productivity, 71–2, 137, 181, 188, 189, 203

Land Reform, 5, 7, 68, 210

Lao Tzu, 201

law of comparative advantage, 144

law of one price, 169

Leap Outward, 31, 46, 80, 160

Chen Yun’s ending of, 157

defects of, 157–8

Hua’s launching of, 29–30, 41

in contrast to enterprise reform, 65, 158–9, 162

compare Ten Year Plan

Lee, Kuan Yew, 33–4

Legalism, 198

legitimacy, 29, 40, 52, 67, 82, 175, 193, 220, 228

Lenin, 11, 12, 19, 40

Lerner, Abba, 6–7

Li, Peng, 105–7, 123

Li, Xiannian, 22, 29, 42, 61, 83–4

Liang, Shumin

confrontation with Mao, 10

on tradition, 201

Lin, Biao, 27

Liu, Guoguang, 81

Liu, Shaoqi, 7–8, 17, 27, 98, 100, 208

local corporatism, 143

local protectionism, 69, 171

local experiments, 112–13, 147–8

see also regional competition; pilot cities

local governments

as providers of organizational services, 142, 146, 173

competition for loans, 91

during Great Leap Forward, 15, 18

Mao on, 13

relation with state enterprises, 44, 69–71, 129, 131, 143, 170

role in township and village enterprise, 55, 58

see also regional competition

local public goods, 9, 77, 141, 171, 173

Lushan Meeting, 27, 49

Macau, 32, 35, 61, 62, 63

Madsen, Richard, 176

mandarins, 34, 197

mandate of heaven, 175

Mao, Zedong

and Anti-Rightist Movement, 10

and Cultural Revolution, 18–21

and Great Leap Forward, 14–18

class analysis, 121–2

conflicting legacies of, 2, 53, 56, 147, 156

critiques of centralization, 11, 12–13

in relation to Moscow, 4–5

On Practice, 121

On the Ten Major Relationships, 12–13, 28, 29, 37, 39, 73

“power of government comes out of the barrel of a gun”, 195

troubled relations with intellectuals, 8–10

marginal revolutions, 65, 67, 109, 159–61, 164–5

see also dual structure of reform; private economy; private farming; Special Economic Zones; township and village enterprises

maritime China, 63

market discipline, 73, 79, 89, 144, 149, 169, 170, 171

state enterprise with no, 72, 182

township and village enterprises under, 136, 168, 172

see also common national market

market for goods, 190, 193, 194, 203, 207

market for ideas

as undermined by habits of thought, 196–7

distinction from democracy, 198–9

in relation to innovation, 193–4

in relation to market for goods, 194

in relation to social harmony, 194

roots in Chinese history, 197–8

see also Chinese universities

market selection, 79, 136

Marshall, Alfred

on demand and supply curves, 125

on internal and external economies, see economies of scale

on organization, 142, 173

Marx, Karl, 1, 11, 19, 62, 121, 155

Marxism, 3, 9, 32, 81, 85, 98, 177, 196

Deng’s re-interpretation of, 120–2, 156

maximization, 187, 206

media control, 15, 17, 18, 25, 84

Mencius

on “da zhang fu”, 197

on pragmatism, 122

migrant workers, 146, 151, 181

migration, 7, 17, 181

see also emigration

mixed economy, 5, 10, 65, 73

see also socialist transition

monopoly of truth, 148

morality, 185, 187

National Comprehensive Economic System Reform, 44–5

National Economic and Technological Development Zones, 140

Naughton, Barry, 216, 226

Neo-Confucianism, 178

Nian, Guangjiu, 77–8

Nissan, 33, 43, 72, 150, 189

Nixon, Richard, 2, 28, 82

North, Douglass, 131, 226

one-child policy, 180–1

organizational capital, 51, 217

Organization Department of the Central Committee, 24, 103, 148

paper companies, 87–8

peaceful evolution, 76, 93, 107, 118

Pearl River Delta, 63, 84, 111, 132, 150

Peking University, 9, 201, 211, 228

Peng, Dehuai, 27, 98

People’s Bank of China, 90–1, 112

People’s Construction Bank of China, 91

Perkins, Dwight, 30

Phelan, John, 112

pilot cities

in National Comprehensive Economic System Reform, 44–5

planned economy as primary, market adjustments as auxiliary, 74–5, 165

political dissidents, 193

Polo, Marco, 178

Popper, Karl, 194

pragmatism, 26, 28, 49, 80, 153

Chen Yun on, 80, 121

Chinese tradition of, 122

Deng on, 121, 122, 180

Hu Yaobang on, 25, 93

Mao on, 121–2

President Cleveland, 204

price reform

aborted attempt in mid 1980s, 92

failed attempt in early 1980s, 72–3, 75

of 1992, 124–5, 141

“tiao” versus “fang”, 86

see also dual track pricing

price distortions, 126, 127, 128, 168

private economy

as marginal revolution, 56–9

discrimination against, 58, 123

policy attack on, 78, 106–7

see also economic crime; household responsibility system; marginal revolutions; privatization; returned youth

private farming

as family of practices, 50

as marginal revolution, 51, 158

ban on and restrictions against, 48

misrepresentations of, 49, 136, 161–2

post-Mao case in Anhui, 47

post-Mao case in Sichuan, 46–7

under Mao, 49–50

see also family farming; household responsibility system; marginal revolutions

privatization

benefits of, 137–8

enterprise reform without, 88, 168

first experiment of, 131–2

ideological biases against, 130, 159

practical considerations against, 133–4

see also state owned enterprises

privilege, 54, 56, 70, 94, 96, 135, 136, 193, 197

product markets, see common national market

procurement policy in agriculture, see unified procurement and redistribution

production quota, 16, 45, 64, 87, 168

production without products, 189

156 Projects, 210

property rights economics, 54, 97, 131, 172, 228

Chinese economic reform and, 171–3

reception in China, 131

see also rights

Pudong New Area, see under Shanghai

public ownership

as essence of socialism, 86, 114, 151

as formulated in traditional Chinese thinking, 177, 228

defects of, 130, 131, 136, 182–3

Qian Xuesen, 9, 15, 191, 204

“Qian puzzle”, 191

Qin Dynasty (221–207 B.C.), 21, 178, 197

see also First Emperor of Qin

Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), 3, 62, 178

quan-gui capitalism, 175

Reagan, Ronald, 82

recommendatory economic plan, see under state planning

red-hat firms, 58, 78

regional competition, 138, 139, 171

duplicative investment as mechanism of, 143–6

epistemic preconditions for, 147–8

local development models resulted from, 148–9

local governments in, 140, 142, 173–4

Ren, Zhongyi, 24

repetitive investment, see duplicative investment

Resolution to Strike Hard against Serious Economic Crime (1982), 75

see also economic crime

returned youth, 57, 65, 68

see also private economy; waiting to be employed (dai ye)

Ricardo, David, 144

rightists, 7, 10, 19, 24, 25, 42, 153, 196

see also anti-rightist movement

rights, 50, 54, 131, 135, 137, 183

as institutional facts, 184

Lord Shang on, 183

Master Shen on, 183

simultaneous delineation and transaction of, 172–3

state in delineation and re-negotiation of, 69, 71, 173, 226

rule of law, 19, 101, 102, 183 compare rule by law under Chinese legal system

savings, 90

forced, 46

Schumpeter, Joseph, 138

seeking truth from facts, 6, 25, 40, 66, 156, 176

as essence of Marxism, 121

Chinese origins of, 122

self-employment, 57, 156, 159, 161, 163

see also marginal revolutions; private economy; returned youth

Schell, Manfeld, 105

Shanghai, 14, 44, 73, 84, 93

excluded from special economic zones, 63, 119, 218

Pudong New Area, 63, 111

Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation, 144–5

Shanghai Feilo Acoustics Corporation, 90

Shanghai International Settlement, 195

Shanghai Stock Exchange, 112, 135

State Assets Management Committee, 132–3

Shantou, 61, 63

see also Special Economic Zones

Shashi, see pilot cities

Shekou Industrial Park, 61, 63

see also China Merchants; Yuan, Geng

Shenyang, 45, 112, 130

Shenzhen

as exit for illegal emigrants, 59–60

as Special Economic Zone, 63, 83, 110–11

Shenzhen Special Zone Daily, 119

Shenzhen Stock Exchange, 112–13, 135, 224

tale of two Luofang villages, 60

see also Southern Tour; Special Economic Zones

Sichuan province, 14, 49, 56, 68, 132, 200

first enterprise reform, 43–4, 158

first private farming at Nine Dragon Village, 46–7, 51

Sik, Ota, 33

Silicon Valley, 143

Sima, Qian, 201

Smith, Adam, 16, 96, 187, 198, 206

on benevolence, 187

on division of labor, 144

on inequality, 186

on justice, 185–6

on “man of system”, 180

Theory of Moral Sentiments, 184, 186, 187, 205

Wealth of Nations, 184

Singapore, 32, 33–4, 35, 60, 62, 140

social facts, 184, 227

socialism with Chinese characteristics, 67, 123

socialist transition, 12

socialist modernization, 31, 37, 40, 41, 67, 96, 153, 154, 204

see also four modernizations

social learning, 145

see also trial and error

soft budget constraint, 170

Song Dynasty (960–1280), 122, 178

South Korea, 35, 63, 150, 174, 189, 202

Southern Tour, see under Deng, Xiaoping

Special Economic Zones

as marginal revolution, 65, 160

political dilemma created by, 83, 84

Regulations for the Special Economic Zones in Guangdong Province, 62, 101

setup of, 59–64

spiritual pollution, 76, 81, 83, 93

see also anti-spiritual pollution campaign

Stalin, 4–5, 11

Stalinism, 2, 5, 20, 33, 74

State Assets Supervision and Administration Commission, 136, 224

state-led capitalism, 175

state owned enterprises, 13, 14, 32, 85, 88, 89

as jewels of socialism, 36, 42, 53, 54, 55, 78–9

as target of enterprise reform, 43–5, 64–5, 66–7, 73, 112, 129–30, 134–5, 158–9

grid structure of supervision, 69–70

idiosyncratic constraints faced by, 71

inequality created by, 182

its lack of autonomy, 43, 55–6, 72

monopoly enjoyed by, 136, 182

political risk created by, 183

weaknesses of, 136–8

compare township and village enterprises

see also enterprise reform; idiosyncratic constraints; privatization

state planning, 37, 45

as foundation of socialism, 75, 86, 154, 168, 179

compulsory economic plan, 81

defects of, 5

marginal forces outside, 46, 64, 81, 106

recommendatory economic plan, 81, 99

state enterprises operating outside, 71, 88

see also Five Year Plan; production quota

state quota, see production quota

structure of production, 139, 142

1989 Students Movement, 94–6, 104, 107, 108, 151–2

Sun, Yat-sen, 3

see also Kuomintang

Sun, Yefang, 43, 117

Taiwan, 4, 11, 35, 58, 60, 61, 63, 149, 150, 151, 174, 211

Tang Dynasty (618–907), 178, 198

Taoism, 198, 201

tax

product, 127, 128–9

use of contract in collecting, 126–7

value added, 128, 129

tax reform, 146

of 1983, 126

of 1994, 127–9, 167, 170, 171

Ten Year Plan (1976–1985), 29–30

think-tank, 99

3rd Plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee (1978), 36–40, 41–2, 64, 162

see also 1978 Communiqué

3rd Plenum of the Fourteenth Central Committee (1993), 131, 133

3rd Plenum of the Twelfth Central Committee (1984), 67, 85, 86, 91, 124, 162

Tian, Jiyun, 119, 120

tian xia wei gong, 195

Tobin, James, 108

township and village enterprises, 54, 81–2, 106

as private enterprises, 55

as successors of commune and brigade enterprises, 53–4

reasons for success of, 55–6, 79, 136–7, 172

trade promotion, 36

see also export promotion

tradition, 6, 19, 110, 177, 200, 201, 202, 203, 229

see also anti-traditionalism

transaction cost, 79

cost of exchange, 79

cost of operating the market, 139

cost of using the market, 169

information cost, 79, 163

trial and error, 137, 168, 173

see also social learning

two reforms in China’s market transformation, 156, 159

see also dual structure of reform; marginal revolutions

tyranny of the majority, 198

unified procurement and redistribution, 7, 64, 77, 86–7

United States of America (USA), 2, 16, 150, 180, 188, 189, 202, 204

as favorite destiny for Chinese college students, 82–3, 191

Chinese officials’ visit to, 22, 32, 33, 42, 62, 82

manufacturing sector of, 189–90

urbanization, 180, 181

waiting to be employed (dai ye), 68, 134

see also returned youth

Wal-Mart, 189

Wan, Li, 47, 48, 49

Wang, Fu, 196

Wang, Zhen, 155–6, 225

Wen, Jiaobao

on Adam Smith, 184–5

on dignity and happiness, 204–5

on Theory of Moral Sentiments, 186–7

Wenzhou

as first birthplace of Chinese capitalism, 58–9

first individual household economy registered in, 58

private business under attack in, 78

World 3, see Popper, Karl

World Trade Organization, 109

Wu, Jinglian, 161

Wu, Nanshen, 60–1

Wuhan, 45, 85, 92, 130

Wuhan Machine Tool Plant, 85

Xi, Zhongxun, 61

xiahai, 88, 123

xian, 69, 70, 138, 147

Xiang, Nan, 24

Xiaokang, see under Kang, Youwei

Xue, Muqiao, 29, 72, 81, 108, 114, 219

Yan, Fu, 184

Yan, Hui, 206

Yang, Jisheng, 7

Yang, Shangkun, 61

Yangzi River Delta, 63, 111

Ye, Jianying, 22, 23, 58

Yuan, Geng, 60–1

see also China Merchants; Shekou Industrial Park

Yuelu Academy, 122

Zhao, Ziyang, 80

as general secretary, 67, 98, 115

as premier, 24, 73, 82, 99

as provincial party secretary, 43, 47, 158

Zhejiang province, 132, 141, 200

private farming in Yongjia, 49

see also Wenzhou

Zhou, Enlai, 22, 27, 39, 66, 115, 157

Zhu, Rongji, 8, 127, 132, 133

Zhu, Xi, 122

Zhucheng, 131–2

Zhuhai, 35, 63, 117–18, 120

see also Special Economic Zones; Southern Tour

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